Neurodevelopmental disorders and the gut microbiome: insights into ADHD and tic disorders
Xinyi Qiu
This review examines the relationship between tic disorders (TD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and the gut microbiota within the framework of the gut–brain axis. We summarize current evidence on the clinical characteristics and neurobiological features of TD and ADHD, and discuss how genetic susceptibility, environmental exposures, and dietary factors may interact with gut microbial composition. We further review studies comparing the gut microbiota of affected individuals an