Sex hormone dysregulation after traumatic brain injury: interactions with sleep disturbances and seizure susceptibility

Each year, approximately 2.9 million people in the United States sustain a traumatic brain injury (TBI), many of whom go on to experience chronic secondary complications such as post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) and sleep–wake disturbances. These outcomes arise from complex secondary injury processes, including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and disruptions in neuroendocrine signaling. While inflammatory and excitotoxic mechanisms have been extensively studied, growing evidence highlights sex