Integrated Life Cycle Assessment of a Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Plant during The Operational Phase: Linking Environmental Impacts to Energy and Chemicals Consumption

Drinking water treatment relies heavily on chemical processes such as coagulation and disinfection, where reaction efficiency directly influences operational performance and environmental impact. However, conventional systems often operate under design assumptions that overlook real-time variations in reaction conditions and energy–chemical interactions, leading to suboptimal performance. This study aims to investigate the reaction mechanisms governing alum-based coagulation and chlorine disinfe