Neointimal hyperplasia and vascular restenosis: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic interventions

Abstract Vascular restenosis, a pathological recurrence of lumen narrowing following interventions, remains a major limitation to the long-term success of vascular procedures. Its development is centrally driven by neointimal hyperplasia, a process orchestrated by endothelial injury, phenotypic switching of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from a contractile to a synthetic state, and a coordinated inflammatory response. Despite advancements, the molecular mechanisms are not fully elucidated,