Energies

This paper investigates the memory usage of battery management system (BMS) software functions required for operating the high-voltage battery system (HVBS) of a light-duty electric vehicle (EV). Seven BMS software functions—battery balancing and monitoring, state of charge (SoC) and power estimation, fault diagnosis, contactor control, and communication management—are developed, validated throug…

The building heat demand and the energy system capacity are usually designed independently in solar heating systems for rural houses in cold regions. This leads to oversized system capacity and a lack of collaborative design between the building side and the energy system side. To address these issues, a building–PVT collaborative passive–active design framework was proposed for a typical rural h…

Non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM) enables fine-grained energy awareness and demand-side energy management in residential and commercial buildings, but practical deployment requires load identification models to accommodate newly introduced appliances from only a few labeled samples without forgetting previously learned classes. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a few-shot class-in…

As the photovoltaic (PV) generation sector expands, ensuring reliable maximum power point tracking (MPPT) in embedded controllers becomes increasingly important. However, many MPPT studies rely on idealized simulation assumptions that neglect practical sensing limitations, including ADC quantization, finite measurement resolution, sensor noise, offset, ripple, and scaling constraints. This paper …

This study integrates disruption propagation and inventory buffer allocation into a unified analytical framework and develops a transport-energy performance model (TEPM) for intermodal supply chains operating within smart city manufacturing clusters (SCMCs). The analyzed system consists of a single intermodal logistics node (ILN), a city logistics node (CLN), and multiple manufacturing buildings,…

To meet the off-grid operation demand of highway facilities, this study proposes a capacity configuration optimization method for an off-grid highway microgrid. First, based on the monthly electricity consumption data of tunnels, toll stations, service areas, and electric vehicle charging stations along the highway, a load profile is reconstructed by considering the operating characteristics of d…

Solid gravity energy storage (SGES) has emerged as a promising long-duration energy storage option, but systematic safety comparisons among its principal technology pathways remain limited. This study develops a unified expert-based framework for the comparative safety screening of vertical tower-based SGES (VT-SGES), vertical shaft-based SGES (VS-SGES), inclined cable-driven SGES (IC-SGES), and …

Flooded lead–acid batteries continue to operate in utility-scale battery energy storage systems (BESSs), yet their long-term degradation under grid-frequency regulation remains poorly characterized by field evidence. This paper presents an eight-year, multi-indicator degradation analysis of a flooded Ortsfeste Kupferstreckmetall (OCSM) lead–acid string at the M5BAT hybrid BESS facility (RWTH Aach…

To efficiently utilize oil sands resources, enhance their strategic position among traditional energy sources, and deeply reveal the essence of the pyrolysis reaction of oil sands bitumen (OSB), this study integrates experimental characterization with molecular simulation techniques. This paper innovatively adopts the “ring-bridge archipelago” method to construct two-dimensional molecular structu…

Accurate state of health (SOH) estimation of lithium-ion batteries is essential for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of electric transportation and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS). However, extracting reliable degradation information from Battery Management System (BMS) data remains challenging due to measurement noise, operating variations, and nonlinear characteristics of charg…

The Upper Rhine Graben (URG) has been a key area for subsurface energy activities for decades, with a focus on hydrocarbons during the mid- to late 1900s and a gradual shift toward energy transition applications such as geothermal energy and, potentially in the future, underground hydrogen storage (UHS). This study focuses on the northern URG, where legacy hydrocarbon fields and saline aquifers p…

Hydrogen is not intrinsically low-carbon; its environmental value depends on how, where, and with which energy system it is produced. This PRISMA 2020 systematic review synthesizes 28 peer-reviewed life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on major hydrogen production pathways, including steam methane reforming, electrolysis, biomass-based routes, thermochemical cycles, and emerging photoelectrochemica…

The rapid proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies and smart grids has substantially intensified the cybersecurity challenges associated with smart energy meters (SEMs). The data collected by the plugs are transmitted via a wireless communication protocol to a smart electricity meter that acts as a local gateway. This meter centralizes the information from the various sensors, may p…

Doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) may suffer from excessive rotor deceleration during frequency support and secondary frequency drop (SFD) during rotor speed recovery. To address these issues, this paper proposes a two-stage frequency response strategy for DFIGs based on adaptive speed–frequency coordinated optimization. In the frequency support stage, the strategy simultaneously considers …

The Baltic states disconnected from the Soviet-era BRELL ring and synchronized with the Continental European grid in February 2025, completing a decade of new electricity and gas interconnections in the Poland–Lithuania–Latvia–Estonia corridor. This study examines how energy security evolved across the four markets as those interconnections were added, drawing on ENTSO-E cross-border flow data, E…

Indonesia has committed to displacing diesel generation with solar PV and battery energy storage (PV-BESS) microgrids on its isolated island grids. However, no PV-BESS project on an isolated grid has reached financial close through the independent power producer procurement channel to date. Existing studies attribute this gap to implementation failure. This study proposes and tests an alternative…

Commercial greenhouses are becoming significant, controllable, and weather-dependent electricity loads in regions pursuing controlled environment agriculture (CEA). Their electrical demands—such as supplemental lighting, heating, ventilation/cooling, irrigation pumps, and CO2 enrichment—exhibit substantial intra-day flexibility. This flexibility stems from the fact that plant productivity depends…

Accurate identification of customer transformer relationships in distribution sub-zones is a fundamental prerequisite for the refined management of low-voltage distribution networks and the integration of distributed generation sources. Addressing current issues such as missing records, non-standard wiring and unclear boundaries between multiple sub-zones, this paper proposes an identification me…

Wind-farm re-planning must reconcile wind resources, wake interactions, cable routing, foundation and installation requirements, grid access, land/water-use cost, and operation and maintenance. This study develops a terrain-structured dual-Pareto framework for the Saemangeum complex coastal site on the southwest coast of the Republic of Korea, along the inner side of its 33.9 km seawall. Stage I …

With the large-scale integration of distributed photovoltaic generation (PV) into modern distribution networks, the inherent stochasticity and volatility of renewable energy outputs have imposed non-negligible impacts on the secure and economic operation of power systems. Conventional probabilistic power flow (PPF) methods are limited in accurately modeling source–load uncertainty and, more impor…