Development and in vitro cellular evaluation of optimised multiple emulsion and liposomes-in-emulsion adjuvant systems for vaccine delivery

The global need for effective vaccines has gained more significance after the COVID-19 pandemic. Subunit vaccines based on emulsions and liposomes offer several advantages, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and compositional flexibility. This study aimed to develop and optimize a dual delivery system incorporating ovalbumin (OVA) liposomes in a multiple W/O/W emulsion system for vaccine delivery. A 4 × 3 × 3 factorial design was employed to optimize the emulsion, investigating the ef