Modeling Urothelial Carcinoma and Immunotherapy Response Using Organoid Platforms: From Epithelial Tumor Organoids to Multilineage Systems

Cancer immunotherapy has transformed oncology, including the management of urothelial carcinoma, yet response rates remain limited and mechanisms of resistance are incompletely understood. At the same time, recent initiatives from the National Institutes of Health and the United States Food and Drug Administration have emphasized the development of standardized human organoid platforms to improve preclinical modeling and reduce reliance on traditional animal systems. Urothelial cancer provides a