Predicting Cement Strength as Probability Density: Resolving Partial Observability and Sample Scarcity for Industrial Quality Control

Compressive strength is the critical quality metric in industrial cement production, yet conventional assessment relies on destructive 28-day tests or inaccurate accelerated methods, hindering timely quality control. These methods inherently cause sample scarcity (only 52–195 batches/year/plant) due to the 28-day curing requirement, labor-intensive specimen preparation, and destructive testing p