Time-resolved transcriptomics reveals mechanisms of acute and sustained low-pH adaptation in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Corynebacterium glutamicum is a major industrial cell factory for amino acid production. Acidic byproduct accumulation can lower broth pH, disrupt cytoplasmic pH homeostasis, induce oxidative stress, and ultimately compromise productivity. As low-pH stress is dynamic and process-dependent, distinguishing responses to acute acid shock versus sustained acidification is important for improving strain robustness. Here, we investigated low-pH adaptation under two regimes: acute, unbuffered pH 4.0 sho