If the state is incompetent, do it yourself: private alliance as an institutional architect in the catch-up process

Abstract We examine the Finnish pulp and paper industry’s century-long catch-up journey, focusing on the intertwined development of technical and institutional capabilities. Using historical methods, we highlight how a private, self-organized R&D alliance evolved into an institutional architect, ultimately shaping not only governance but also regulation and entire innovation systems. Our findings demonstrate that sectoral systems of innovation emerge from both technological advancements and