ZIP code-level alcohol outlet density and nonfatal overdose among people who inject drugs in 22 US metropolitan statistical areas: a multilevel modeling analysis
Snigdha Peddireddy·Hannah L.F. Cooper·Sabriya Linton·Umedjon Ibragimov·Danielle F. Haley·Courtney R. Yarbrough·Janet R. Cummings·Stephanie Beane
Alcohol outlet density (AOD) is associated with drinking behaviors and related harms across several populations. As alcohol consumption compounds the depressive effects of opioids to increase overdose risk among people who inject drugs (PWID), this study investigated (1) whether off-premise AOD is associated with the risk of nonfatal overdose among a large sample of PWID, and (2) whether this relationship varies by individual race/ethnicity. We linked individual-level 2018 National HIV Behaviora