The carbon dioxide emission effects of trade openness and tourism: Can renewable energy moderate their impact?

Introduction Globalisation has accelerated international trade and tourism, both of which have complex implications for environmental sustainability, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. While trade expansion may intensify pollution, tourism can either exacerbate or mitigate environmental degradation depending on structural and policy contexts. This study examines the effects of trade openness and tourism on CO₂ emissions in seven of Africa’s most-visited economies—Egypt, Tunisia, Kenya,