Ambient Confined-Space Annealing for Crystallization Enhancement and Defect Passivation in Sb2S3 Thin-Film Solar Cells

Abstract Annealing is a crucial step for recrystallizing Sb 2 S 3 and forming high-quality Sb 4 S 6 chain-like crystals, which is essential for achieving high-efficiency photovoltaic devices. However, this process currently faces a fundamental trade-off: Although high-temperature annealing enhances crystallinity, it also introduces severe sulfur and Sb 2 S 3 molecular escape, ultimately degrading device performance. To overcome this limitation, we propose a confined-space annealing (CSA) strateg