Sons over daughters: older parents’ downward transfer and expectations of reciprocity in mainland China

Abstract Despite trends toward gender equality in mainland China, traditional gender ideology prioritising sons over daughters may continue to shape intergenerational support, including older parents’ provision of grandchild care. Such son favouritism is also suspected to modulate older parents’ expectations of future reciprocity. Thus, this research investigated how older parents’ provision of grandchild care differed between sons and daughters within the same family, and whether their associat