Hair Trace Element Imbalance in Smokers with HFpEF: A Pilot Study of Micronutrient and Metal Homeostasis
Beata Krasińska·Anetta Hanć·Ievgen Spasenenko·Krzysztof J. Filipiak·Krzysztof Bartuś·Zbigniew Krasiński·Andrzej Tykarski·Tomasz Urbanowicz
Background: Trace elements function as essential micronutrients involved in oxidative balance, mitochondrial activity, and cardiovascular metabolism. Cigarette smoking represents a significant source of toxic metals and may disrupt systemic trace element homeostasis. Alterations in micronutrient and metal balance may contribute to oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and myocardial remodeling, which are central mechanisms in the pathogenesis of heart failure with preserved ejection fractio