Integrated modelling of dual fluidised-bed biomass steam gasification with hot gas cleaning and upgrading for Fischer–Tropsch liquid fuel synthesis

• An integrated Aspen Plus model was developed for dual fluidised-bed biomass steam gasification. • A hybrid kinetic–equilibrium modelling framework was applied to gasification and syngas upgrading units. • Model predictions showed excellent agreement with experimental data (RMSE < 1.4 for H 2 and CO). • Optimal operating conditions were identified to maximise syngas yield and quality. • Syngas upgrading successfully achieved an H 2 /CO ratio of 2:1 suitable for Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. This s