Urban traffic dynamics and their impact on CO₂ emissions and temperature: a three-year GNSS-based study during the COVID-19 pandemic in Jakarta

Urban traffic and air pollution remain strongly interconnected challenges for big cities. In Jakarta, transportation activity remains one of the primary contributors to carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and urban heat stress, worsened by high-density land use and limited integration of public transportation. The COVID-19 pandemic temporarily transformed these dynamics through the policy of social mobility restriction; this study therefore aims to assess how changes in traffic volume affect CO₂ inte