Predicting STEM competencies with machine learning: identifying key determinants among 522,802 adolescents

Prominence of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) competencies has transcended mere academic achievements, contributing cross-cuttingly to individual, societal, and global development. Despite consensus that STEM-related outcomes are largely shaped by complex and interconnected factors, key determinants of STEM competencies remain insufficiently explored. Guided by Dynamic Model of Education Effectiveness (DMEE), the current study draws on Programme for International Student